ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil Advance Access originally published online on December 1, 2008
ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil 2009 66(1):41-49; doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsn188
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This article appears in the following ICES Journal of Marine Science issue: European Symposium on Marine Protected Areas as a Tool for Fisheries Management and Ecosystem Conservation [View the issue table of contents]
The management of artisanal fishing within the Marine Protected Area of the Port-Cros National Park (northwest Mediterranean Sea): a success story?
1 GIS Posidonie, University Campus of Luminy, case 901, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
2 UMR 6540 Dimar, Centre d'Océanologie de Marseille University Campus of Luminy, case 901, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
Correspondence to C. F. Boudouresque: tel: +33 491829131; fax: +33 491411265; e-mail: charles.boudouresque{at}univmed.fr
Cadiou, G., Boudouresque, C. F., Bonhomme, P., and Le Diréach, L. 2009. The management of artisanal fishing within the Marine Protected Area of the Port-Cros National Park (northwest Mediterranean Sea): a success story? – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 41–49.The Port-Cros National Park, France (northwest Mediterranean Sea), established in 1963, is a Marine Protected Area (MPA) where, unlike no-take areas, artisanal fishing has been permitted (except trawling), owing to social and economic pressures. Nevertheless, restrictions on artisanal fishing have increased through a fishing charter (1999). In the meantime, recreational fishing was progressively banned, which has helped as a management tool to make the restrictions on artisanal fishing acceptable in social terms. Monitoring of the artisanal fishing (2000–2005) reveals the stability of the fishing fleet (9–13 vessels); of the fishing effort [number of fishing sets per day between 3.4 (±2.1) and 6.9 (±3.4) in spring, and 3.0 (±1.7) and 5.2 (±2.7) in summer]; and of yields [catch per unit effort between 1.27 (±0.72) and 1.68 (±1.44) kg 100 m of net–1 d–1]. Furthermore, based on an analysis of available data, artisanal fishing does not jeopardize the conservation objectives of the MPA, so that, from 1963 to date, the issue has changed from "What can be done to ban commercial fishing?" to "Is there any reason to ban commercial fishing?".
Keywords: artisanal fishing, conservation, management, Marine Protected Area, northwest Mediterranean
Received 26 October 2007; accepted 9 June 2008; advance access publication 1 December 2008.
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Introduction |
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 Top Introduction Material and methodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The first coastal Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) were set up to protect the marine environment against the effects of human activities, especially fishing. The key concept was that the areas were to remain materially unaltered by human exploitation or occupation. Protected areas were seen as "islands" of nature and tranquillity, surrounded by areas in which incompatible resource uses were allowed (McNeely, 1994; Simberloff, 2000). It was therefore quite natural that fishing should be banned (i.e. no-take areas created) in the whole or part of an MPA.
Cases in which fishing is permitted or is only partially restricted have generally been the result of social or economic pressures (Francour et al., 2001). The idea that coastal MPAs might contribute to the management of conflicts of interest between different human activities, and that no-take MPAs might help to improve catches for adjacent artisanal fisheries because of the export of biomass (adult fish spillover) and the export of fish eggs and larvae, has only been investigated recently (Russ and Alcala, 1996; Dayton et al., 2000; Planes et al., 2000; Sánchez Lizaso et al., 2000; Roberts et al., 2001; Willis et al., 2003; Lynch et al., 2004). Less attention has been paid to MPAs in which artisanal fishing is allowed and to the joint management of artisanal and recreational fishing in these areas. The Port-Cros National Park (PCNP), France (northwest Mediterranean Sea; 43°00'N 6°23'E), is one such area.
The PCNP and the surrounding MPA (1288 ha) was established in 1963, with the aim of preserving the area's natural heritage (by protection and restoration), promoting scientific research, educating the public, and serving as an example (e.g. conservation management) and reference site. However, MPAs are not isolated from their surroundings; they are exposed to many tourist visits and increased fishing effort, resulting in an increasing scarcity of fish (Lleonart, 2003; Pauly et al., 2003; Ward and Hegerl, 2003; Coll et al., 2004). For the PCNP, 
200 000 tourists visit the island annually and, within its MPA, 25 000 pleasure boats moor, 40 000 dives are conducted (2005), and 10 or so artisanal fishing vessels are at work.
Since the national park was founded, trawling—a fishing practice that severely damages habitats, especially Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows—and spear fishing have been banned. Until 1999, artisanal fishing in the MPA was governed by French national regulations and by local regulations, established by the prud'homie des p
cheurs (fishers’ guild) of Le Lavandou, to which area the MPA belongs (Table 1). Since 1999, the PCNP has had its own commercial fishing regulations enshrined in a fishing charter. The charter represents an agreement between the fishers and MPA managers and is based largely on the prud'homie rules. To be authorized to fish inside the MPA, each fisher has to sign the charter each year and abide by its rules (Table 1). In addition, fishers have to communicate details of their catches to the MPA managers via a fishing logbook. The charter is updated annually, based on scientific monitoring and in consultation with the fishers. It is worth noting that amendments to the charter have so far been minor, and that prohibited fishing areas represent only 5% of the MPA. It is also important to note that existing regulations are enforced inside, but usually not outside, the MPA.
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Between 1990 and 2004, in incremental steps, recreational fishing has been almost completely banned, except trolling in certain areas to avoid disadvantaging the local population (Figure 1). Three main factors have motivated the regulation of the remaining recreational fishing: (i) scientists have become aware of the large catches taken by recreational fishing (Moreteau, 1981; Bennett and Attwood, 1993; Sumaila et al., 2000; Coll et al., 2004; Boudouresque et al., 2005; Morales-Nin et al., 2005); (ii) recreational fishing was felt to be incompatible with the image of a national park; (iii) regulation of recreational fishing is seen as a management tool to help make an increase in restrictions on artisanal fishing acceptable.
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This paper investigates the success of fishing management within the PCNP MPA, in terms of environmental conservation and economic and social impact. The questions addressed include: as a result of the restrictions, has the commercial fishing fleet, which fish in Port-Cros waters, been reduced? Have significant changes in fishing effort and yields been observed? Are current regulations and prohibitions too restrictive for the fishers and local population, or are they compatible with sustaining existing fishing activities? Does commercial fishing jeopardize the fish populations and emblematic or threatened species?
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Material and methods |
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TopIntroductionMaterial and methodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The monitoring of the artisanal fishery in the MPA provided data between 2000 and 2005 from three sources: fishing logbooks, fishing-effort charts, and on-board data collection by scientists. The sampling effort is shown in Table 2.
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Fishing logbooks
According to the charter, fishers complete the logbook for each day fished within the MPA, including date, sectors fished, gear characteristics, number and length of each fishing set, soak time and depth, catches of the day by number and weight for selected target species or categories, and discards (nature and weight). Collected at the end of the fishing season, the fishing logbooks provide data for the entire fishing season to characterize the fishing effort, to determine yields, and to allow comparisons between seasons and years. Because of incomplete data collection in 2000, the year in which the fishing logbooks were introduced, the data for that year were not taken into account for several of the data analyses.
Fishing-effort charts
The spatial distribution and intensity of the fishing effort is provided by a chart completed by national park officers during their regularly scheduled supervisory patrol surveys. Each fishing set is drawn on a background map (1/25 000) and described (e.g. fishing vessel's name). Most of the charts were completed in spring and summer, corresponding to peak supervisory activity. Therefore, only spring and summer were selected for comparisons between years. Data from these charts were entered into a geographical information system (Arcview software).
On-board data collection
From 2003 to 2005, with the consent of fishers, data were collected on board fishing vessels by scientists within and around the MPA. Noted were the type of gear (length, height, mesh size, number of pieces of net per fishing set), the soak time and the depth, the corresponding catches (species, length, and weight), and the discards.
Calculation of the catch per unit effort
The values of catch per unit effort (cpue) were calculated from logbook data as follows: cpue = wet weight (kg) of overall catches or target species or categories declared for each fisher per day (per outing) divided by the number of 100 m pieces of fishing net.
Statistical analysis
Because data for the number of fishing vessels and fishing sets per day and cpue were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test), non-parametric statistical tests were chosen. Logbook and fishing-effort-chart data (number of fishing vessels per day) were compared using the Wilcoxon test. A Kruskal–Wallis test was carried out to test differences between years. If p < 0.05, differences were considered significant. Post hoc multiple comparisons (based on the rank, with Bonferroni correction) were made. A "representativeness ratio" of logbook data to fishing fleet was calculated as follows: representativeness ratio (in %) = fishing effort from fishers who have submitted a logbook (in number of fishing sets from fishing-effort charts) divided by total effort, as recorded in the fishing-effort charts.
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Results |
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TopIntroductionMaterial and methodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The comparison of fishing-effort charts and logbook data did not reveal significant differences [Wilcoxon test (n = 297), p = 0.3]. Logbooks and on-board data collections were qualitatively and quantitatively comparable for overlapping days.
Artisanal fishing effort
The mean number of fishers who signed the charter was 19 year–1. The number of fishing vessels exploiting the MPA (i.e. present at least once in the course of the year) ranged from 9 to 13 and did not change between 2000 and 2005 (Table 2). This means that nearly half the signatory fishers do not fish within the MPA.
Artisanal fishing vessels principally came from home ports surrounding the PCNP (maximum distance: 20 km). Currently, only one fisher is resident at Port-Cros. Artisanal fishing vessels were characterized by their small size (mean length: 8.6 m) and mean engine power of 93 kW, and that they were usually operated by one fisher, the owner.
Between 2000 and 2005, a maximum of 3–5 fishing vessels were fishing within the MPA simultaneously (i.e. on the same day), and the mean number of vessels per day ranged (according to the year) from 1.5 (±0.7) to 3.0 (±1.0) in spring, and between 1.3 (±0.5) to 2.8 (±1.3) in summer. The number of fishing sets per day was between 3.4 (±2.1) and 6.9 (±3.4) in spring, and between 3.0 (±1.7) and 5.2 (±2.7) in summer. No trend for the number of vessels per day and fishing sets per day was apparent within the studied period (Figures 2 and 3).
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The spatial distribution of the fishing effort between fishers is a function of the distance to their home or temporary port, and their knowledge of fishing sites and habits, and this results in a tacitly agreed fishing distribution pattern (Figure 4).
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The fishing season in the MPA, based on its frequentation by fishers (from logbook data), was characterized by a main period of activity from spring to the beginning of autumn, with a peak at the end of spring and the beginning of summer, and a low pattern of activity during the rest of the year (mainly the winter period). Nevertheless, during the study period, some fishers fished within the MPA during the entire fishing season, whereas others did so only occasionally.
Gear used in the MPA (pieces of net, traps, longline fishing sets) consisted principally of trammel-nets (83.7%, mainly of medium mesh size), followed by gillnets (15.7%), and occasionally fish traps and longlines (together 0.6%). The métiers encountered within the MPA are typical of the surrounding local fishery. During the fishing season, fishers usually use several métiers, according to seasons, target species, and environmental conditions. [Métier corresponds to a combination of gear type, target species, and area of activity (Biseau, 1998).]
Catches of the artisanal fishery
Fishers target mainly red scorpionfish Scorpaena scrofa, sparids (Dentex dentex, Diplodus spp., Pagellus spp., Pagrus pagrus, Sarpa salpa, Sparus aurata, Spondyliosoma cantharus), "Bouillabaisse" (corresponds to the fish that are used in a well-known local dish, the bouillabaisse, e.g. Scorpaena spp., Diplodus spp., Labrus spp., Trachinus spp.), "Soupe" (corresponds to small species and/or individuals of Symphodus spp., Serranus spp., Diplodus spp., Scorpaena spp., Uranoscopus scaber, etc.) that are used in a fish soup (soupe de poisson), striped red mullet Mullus surmuletus, and the spiny lobster Palinurus elephas. Logbooks and on-board data collection revealed that catch composition in the MPA was similar to that of the surrounding artisanal fishery.
The main species and categories targeted in the MPA did not demonstrate conspicuous trends between years, except for "Bouillabaisse" and S. scrofa, which revealed statistically significant decreasing trends in the periods 2000–2005 and 2002–2005, respectively (Table 3). For each year, values of cpue were calculated from the available logbooks (up to nine); only the year 2000 differed significantly from all other years (Figure 5). The total catch (logbook values corrected by the representativeness ratio) ranged from 2.6 to 4.1 kg ha–1 year–1 (Figure 6). Altogether, values of cpue for the PCNP MPA fell within the range of those in protected and non-protected areas in the Mediterranean Sea (Table 4).
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Artisanal fishing did not target threatened and protected species within the MPA (Barcelona and Bern conventions, French legislation). Annual bycatches of these species were small. They include a maximum of five dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus, the recreational fishing of which is banned in France, 56 brown meagre Sciaena umbra, a species not banned from commercial fishing, and 15 Mediterranean locust lobster Scyllarides latus (logbook values corrected by the representativeness ratio).
Most discards were non-commercial species, such as the stingray Dasyatis pastinaca and the dogfish Scyliorhynus spp., and juveniles of target crustaceans. Protected species were also discarded.
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Discussion |
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TopIntroductionMaterial and methodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Are the current regulations and prohibitions too restrictive for the local population and fishers, or are they compatible with sustaining existing fishing activities?
The total number of artisanal fishers fishing in the PCNP MPA has fluctuated within the same ranges since 2000, despite increased restrictions, and even since 1996, before implementation of the fishing charter (unpublished data). The fishing effort (e.g. mean number of fishers and fishing sets present simultaneously) has not been decreasing since 2000. Other factors (e.g. weather and sea conditions, catchability and recruitment of species, fishers' efficiency) may also affect the fishing activity and related catches. Therefore, the observed fluctuations in total catches and the decrease in the cpue of some species may not simply be explained by the effects of the charter's regulatory restrictions. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the fishing effort has not changed since the implementation of the charter, although fishers were able to exploit large suitable adjacent fishing areas.
The MPA generally represents only a small part of the fishers’ overall fishing area. Except for the only resident fisher at Port-Cros, fishing vessels spent a maximum of 25% of their fishing time in the MPA, and it represented a maximum of 50% of their total fishing area (Boudouresque et al., 2004).
Recreational fishing
In the Mediterranean area, recreational fishing catches, whether by spearfishing or angling, are far from negligible (Table 5) compared with those of the artisanal fishing industry (Table 4), although it must be emphasized that recreational fishing occurs over a much smaller surface area than artisanal fishing (Boudouresque et al., 2005).
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Recreational fishing, especially spearfishing, must also be taken into account in marine conservation areas, because it is an important factor that can affect, as does commercial fishing, the composition of fish communities, the structure of fish populations, and therefore, the functioning of ecosystems (Bell, 1983; García-Rubies and Zabala, 1990; Harmelin et al., 1995; Reñones et al., 1997; Jouvenel and Pollard, 2001; Coll et al., 2004; Morales-Nin et al., 2005).
The competition between recreational fishing and artisanal fishing has been reduced since the PCNP was founded (banning of spearfishing) and now hardly occurs owing to the nearly total prohibition of recreational fishing in the MPA (Figure 1). Consequently, artisanal fishers benefit from this reduction of the fishing pressure on the local fish populations (see also Francour et al., 2001), and it may be supposed that the almost complete prohibition of recreational fishing has compensated for the impact of these restrictions, as a result of the fishing charter.
Does artisanal fishing jeopardize the natural heritage of Port-Cros and its conservation?
Numerous studies have established that benthic ecosystems in the PCNP are healthy and habitat diversity is well preserved. To illustrate this, a bibliographical analysis was carried out on several relevant biological indicators, e.g. P. oceanica seagrass meadows, the only Mediterranean habitat included in Appendix I of the 1992 EU Council Directive 92/43/EEC (Pergent et al., 1995; Pergent-Martini et al., 2005), the dusky grouper E. marginatus and the brown meagre S. umbra, the two fish species most emblematic for divers when threatened by fishing (Harmelin and Ruitton, 2007). Indicators of their state within the PCNP MPA and in non-protected areas were compared (Table 6). These quality indicators reveal that the PCNP MPA shelters preserved P. oceanica meadows and the abundance of threatened and protected species better than non-protected areas.
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The success of Port-Cros as a hotspot for scuba diving confirms the quality of its species, habitat, and seascape diversity, and particularly fish and emblematic species density, which have special appeal for divers. All in all, from the current state of knowledge, the fact that the overall indicators of environmental quality are "in the green" is not contested.
When the Port-Cros MPA was established, commercial fishing was not banned, because this would have been politically impossible at the time, owing to social and economic pressures. During the subsequent decades, the question constantly raised before the national park authorities (managers) has been, "What can be done to ban commercial fishing at Port-Cros?" This question remains unanswered. Subsequently (in the 1990s), the question changed to "Is there any reason to ban commercial fishing?" This change of tack has been motivated by the fact that the marine environment appears to be well preserved at Port-Cros, and that the quality indicators remain "green", despite continued commercial fishing. This suggests that commercial fishing, as practised in the MPA, may be compatible with the aims of conservation.
The sustainability of artisanal fishing within the PCNP MPA and its compatibility with the aims of conservation can be explained by: (i) the prohibition of recreational fishing; (ii) the banning of trawling; (iii) the way fishing is practised, with restrictions included in the fishing charter; (iv) the specificity of Mediterranean artisanal fishery, which is characterized by the practice of several métiers that seasonally target diverse species (Farrugio et al., 1993).
Whatever the relative importance of these factors, the main driving force is probably the management of recreational fishing. The full extent of the impact of recreational fishing in the Mediterranean Sea has now been realized. The banning of recreational fishing has made significant increases in restrictions on commercial fishing acceptable in social terms, so a compatibility between conservation of the environment and the maintenance of commercially viable and sustainable commercial fishing, within the context of the consultation process, has been achieved.
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Acknowledgements |
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We thank the Port-Cros National Park and its managers and officers for data collection and the logistical resources provided (especially P. Robert, A. Barcelo, R. A. Viviani, C. Gérardin, and H. Bergère); G. Bernard, B. Guerin, A. Delaunay, and M. Capoulade for on-board data collection; A. Aboussouan, F. Athias-Binche, C. Berger, G. Bernard, C. Boutin, S. Combelles, J. M. Culioli, B. Daniel, A. Delaunay, J. Dutrieux, L. Ehlinger, P. Francour, I. Geronimi, M. Poulain, M. Tillman, J. J. Riutort, and V. Rico for access to unpublished data; and M. Paul for revision of the English. We also thank the fishers and their representatives. Finally, we thank David A. Pollard, Marc Taquet, and an anonymous referee for their contribution to the improvement of this article.
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